EXAMPLES OF ACTION VERBS TO USE IN JOB DESCRIPTIONS

EXAMPLES OF ACTION VERBS TO USE IN JOB DESCRIPTIONS

accommodate conduct extract obtain schedule
achieve confer facilitate operate screen
acquire consolidate file originate search
act (as) construct forecast organize secure
adapt consult formulate participate select
address control furnish perform serve
adjust convert gather persuade service
administer cook generate plan sign
adopt coordinate govern predict simplify
advise correlate guide prepare sell
allocate correspond handle present solicit
analyze counsel highlight preside solve
apply create hire prevent specify
appoint customize identify process stimulate
appraise delegate illustrate produce strategize
approve deliver implement program streamline
arrange demonstrate improve promote strengthen
assemble design improvise propose study
assess determine incorporate provide submit
assign develop increase publicize suggest
assist devise influence publish summarize
assume devote inform push/pull supervise
assure direct initiate quantify support
attain discuss inspect recognize survey
attract disseminate install recommend systematize
audit distinguish instruct reconcile teach
augment distribute interact record test
authorize document interface recruit trace
budget draft interpret redesign trade
calculate drive interview reduce train
circulate edit introduce refer transcribe
clarify eliminate investigate refine transfer
clean encourage issue regulate translate
clear enforce lift reinforce transmit
climb ensure maintain repair troubleshoot
collaborate establish manage reorganize type
collect evaluate market report update
combine execute modify represent upgrade
communicate exhibit monitor research validate
compile expand motivate resolve verify
complete expedite negotiate restructure walk
compose explore notify review weld
compute extend observe revise write

EXAMPLES OF ACTION VERBS TO USE IN JOB DESCRIPTIONS

EXAMPLES OF ACTION VERBS TO USE IN JOB DESCRIPTIONS

accommodate conduct extract obtain schedule
achieve confer facilitate operate screen
acquire consolidate file originate search
act (as) construct forecast organize secure
adapt consult formulate participate select
address control furnish perform serve
adjust convert gather persuade service
administer cook generate plan sign
adopt coordinate govern predict simplify
advise correlate guide prepare sell
allocate correspond handle present solicit
analyze counsel highlight preside solve
apply create hire prevent specify
appoint customize identify process stimulate
appraise delegate illustrate produce strategize
approve deliver implement program streamline
arrange demonstrate improve promote strengthen
assemble design improvise propose study
assess determine incorporate provide submit
assign develop increase publicize suggest
assist devise influence publish summarize
assume devote inform push/pull supervise
assure direct initiate quantify support
attain discuss inspect recognize survey
attract disseminate install recommend systematize
audit distinguish instruct reconcile teach
augment distribute interact record test
authorize document interface recruit trace
budget draft interpret redesign trade
calculate drive interview reduce train
circulate edit introduce refer transcribe
clarify eliminate investigate refine transfer
clean encourage issue regulate translate
clear enforce lift reinforce transmit
climb ensure maintain repair troubleshoot
collaborate establish manage reorganize type
collect evaluate market report update
combine execute modify represent upgrade
communicate exhibit monitor research validate
compile expand motivate resolve verify
complete expedite negotiate restructure walk
compose explore notify review weld
compute extend observe revise write

Job Description Contents Form

While job descriptions may detail many different aspects of a job, nine functional areas are primary. They include:

Identification
Job summary
Supervision
Critical Functions
Training and experience
Key Competencies
Working conditions
Physical demands
Relationship to other jobs


1. Identification

Job Title. Record in this space the name by which the job is usually known. When jobs are known by various titles, the most commonly known title should be used. A list of common job titles is contained in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles which is published by the U.S. Department of Labor.


Alternative Title. Some jobs in an organization have more than one job title. If this is so, for the position you are examining, write in the alternative title in this space.

Department. Because organizations may have individuals performing similar or identical work in different department, it may be important to identify for which department the job is performed. This may be critical in determining wages since job incumbents performing jobs of the same title may in actuality be performing different work. (i.e. a secretary in the legal department may prepare briefs, while a secretary in another department may prepare accounts receivable records).



2.Job Summary (complete this section after all other sections)

The purpose of this section is to provide an over view of the job. It is a summary which briefly describe the duties, the education and training, competencies, work environment, etc. Often, the job summary is used for recruitment purposes. The writing should be concise, complete and accurate. In this section action verbs should be used to summarize:

what the worker does.
how the workers does it
why the worker does it.

In describing “what” the worker does includes physical and mental actions. In describing what avoid general terms such as prepares or operates because they can not give a precise picture of the job. Record “how” the work is done including the machinery and tools used, job knowledge applications and decision. Finally, record “why” the worker does the job. In other words what is the purpose or expected result or product.

3. Supervision

In this section, the supervisory relationship is specified. Place an “X” next to the appropriate descriptor specifying the amount of supervision received and describe in detail the nature and scope of supervision.

Concerning supervision received:

Immediate Supervision. Applies to jobs with detailed instructions given to worker and frequent monitoring of work outputs. Applies to well-structured situations with little deviation from established work procedures.

Overall Supervision. Worker receives overall casual supervision but is responsible for determining work procedures within a broad area of operations.

Directions Only. Worker is permitted to do work without any type of direction instruction and with little work inspection.

Understudying. This is a special supervisory relationship. Usually associated with job coaching or apprenticeships. The objective is for the subordinate to learn the duties of a higher level job.

Concerning the supervision given, record:

Number of departments supervised
Number of workers supervised
Job titles held by employees who are supervised

Then put an “X” next to the nature of the supervision given.

Coordinates Operations. Coordinates an organization or phase of operations within an organization. Gives general directions.

Supervises Work Group. Supervises individuals in a work group. Individuals who fall in this category usually have supervision as a primary job task of duty.

Supervises Assistants. Supervision is an incidental part of other primary duties. A professor who supervises a secretary is an example of someone in this category.

Working Supervisor. This person operates as a worker-supervisor. The individual performs work that is comparable to that performed by the workers s/he supervises. An example is an office manager who coordinates and distributes work to other secretaries.

Coaching and Mentoring. This person has no authority for hiring or fire other employees. However, this person often serves as a lead worker or an on the job coach, giving instruction and guidance to others. Record the number of individuals, the breadth and scope of coaching activities.

4.Critical Functions and Underlying Tasks

In this section, the critical functions and elements (duties and underlying tasks) that the job incumbent performs are recorded. Begin each critical function and element statements with an action verbs. Each critical functions statement should describe what the worker does, how the worker does it, why the work operation is performed and what tools and equipment are used.

The writing style should be uniform. Begin each sentence with an ACTION verb in the third person singular. Avoid unnecessary words or words which have more than one meaning. Avoid vague terms such as “performs” “coordinates”. Be specific

Each critical function consists of a series of task elements. After identifying the critical functions, specify the task elements that lead to performance of the function at the fully competent level.

For example, one critical function of the job of an administrative services person may be “Plan and coordinate travel arrangements for customers.” The task elements might consist of: Researches travel option using computerized travel program; Books travel arrangement; Bills appropriate organizational unit for cost of travel.

Time. Because it is important to determine which functions are the most important, you also need to identify the amount of time devoted to each critical function. Use multiples of 5 for the percentage. Use “N” for those operations requiring less than 5% of the time. Some job cycles involves, some weeks and some months. Record the percentages of time for each operation in the same manner regardless of the length of the cycle. List the critical functions that take the most time first and follow with those of decreasing time importance. If time figures can not be calculated explain why not. Be sure to specify what time dimension (e.g., weekly, monthly, annually) you are using when you figure the percentages.

5. Training and Experience

In this section, it is important to describe carefully, previous job experience and the schooling and training necessary to perform well on the job. You should describe the training and experience necessary to do the critical function that comprise the job rather than the specific training that the job incumbent possesses. Your description should include:

Previous Job Experience. Describe the type, amount and level of previous experience that is considered necessary and desirable. Differentiate between desired and required experience. Given the dynamic nature of today’s work world, experience requirements typically should NOT exceed 5-6 years.

Schooling and Training. Schooling and training refers to job-related knowledge which is not acquired on-the-job. Required job training is the minimum amount of training necessary to perform the job acceptably. General Schooling refers to education of a general academic nature which contributes to the workers ability to follow instructions and acquisition of knowledge such as computer languages, or shorthand. This education refers to that acquired in liberal arts programs, high school. Special Training refers to job-oriented training which may be obtained through apprenticeship, business colleges, correspondence courses. You should list the specific courses such as bookkeeping, machinist apprenticeship, etc.

On-The-Job-Training refers to skills acquired on the job. It is training beyond that obtained from experience in other jobs or from special training programs. For example, an accountant may have to learn the specific accounts receivable process used by the firm. Specific skills which must be learned on the job should be listed (i.e. Two weeks required to learn computer monitoring procedures).

6. Key Competencies

A competency is a trait or a characteristic that’s required by a job holder to perform a job well. It is a demonstrable characteristic of an employee in the position. Competencies focus on what an employee can do, namely the behaviors that need to be executed.

(1)Know How focuses on what the employee needs to know (e.g. how to operate a computer, how to prepare a spread sheet, how to make a cold call on a business prospective);

(2)Adaptability focuses on the scope, breadth and depth of responsibilities. Additionally, it focuses on the speed with which job functions change; and

(3)Creativity relates the types of problems that must be solved. For some jobs (e.g., little creativity is required. That is, the job functions are structured and routine. Other jobs (e.g. art director, research scientist) require the generation of new or novel concepts, procedures or solutions.

As a general rule, competencies should map directly onto key functions statements and the underlying tasks. For the administrative services person described previously a key competencies may be as Competency in conducting computerized searches of travel options; Competency in using excel spread sheet to prepare accounting statements.

7.Working Conditions

In this section describe the environment I which the work is to be performed. List the approximate percentages of time the worker is exposed to each condition. Travel requirements, variable shifts, 24 hour on call requirements should be specified in this section. Be specific when describing the environment that the work will be performed in. Add clarifying statements such as “works in temperatures ranging from 40 to 65 degrees”. If time percentages can not be accurately estimated use “O” for occasionally and “F” for frequency.

8.Physical Demands

Record the percentage of time the workers performing the job spend lifting, carrying, pushing and pulling. For lifting indicate the amount in pounds. Be sure to indicate the percentage of time spent standing and sitting and list other physical demands as necessary for the successful performance of the job.

9.Relation to Other Jobs

If the job is in an established career path or promotional sequence, then it is important to indicate the relationship between the job being analyzed and other jobs. Item A indicates the position from which workers are promoted from. If the job traditionally is associated with promotion to a particularly position, this should be noted in Item B. If there are no advancement possibilities, such a fact should also be noted. Item C should include the titles of jobs to which the worker may normally be laterally assigned within the department on a permanent basis. Item should be utilized to list the titles of jobs or specific operations to which the worker may be temporarily assigned or transferred (i.e. proofreader to paste-up artist).

Writing Job Descriptions

A job description (commonly called a JD) is a written document

that describes the purpose, duties, responsibilities, tasks, and relationships of a particular job. Without a JD, it is impossible to hold a person accountable for performing the duties of their position. The primary purpose of a job description is
to identify the essential functions of the position.Essential functions are those tasks or functions of a particular position that are fundamental to the position (as opposed to marginal). Knowing the essential functions of the job will aid you in
• Assuring compliance with legal requirements
• Establishing a basis for recruitment, selection, and hiring
• Writing appropriate interview questions
• Determining whether a person is qualified to perform the essential functions
• Identifying reasonable accommodations to enable a disabled person to perform the essential functions
• Evaluating work distribution and departmental organization
• Analyzing jobs to determine appropriate pay ranges and classifications
• Training employees
• Assisting incumbents in understanding their job better
• Allowing clear and accurate performance reviews
• Counseling employees on career opportunities and their vocational interests

While every position changes somewhat over time based on the abilities of the incumbent, the description should be written in terms of the position itself, not the capabilities of any individual. It is a document that establishes the baseline which will be utilized for the many reasons listed above, for training new
employees, and for various legal purposes.

All job descriptions are summaries. The baseline objective is to provide enough information in the right format and language to be accurate, clear and useful to the
employer.

Job descriptions:

• Should contain enough accurate information to be useful, and
• should not be so broad that they confuse or mislead managers, employees and/or job applicants

Job Content Section

There are two sections that make up the overall Job Content

Section: Principal Duties and Responsibilities and Other Duties and Responsibilities. The Principal Duties and Responsibilities section covers the Essential Functions of the position. This section will list some items which will be
standard to all positions.

The Other Duties and Responsibilities section covers other important pieces of the overall position; however it does not include essential functions. It will include one item common to all organizational positions, as well as any additional duties that are important to the position but which do not reach the level of an essential function.


What are Essential Functions?

In identifying essential functions, be sure to consider (1) whether employees in the position actually are required to perform the function, and (2) whether removing
that function would fundamentally change the job.

• the position exists to perform the function (e.g., if you hire someone to proofread documents, the ability to proofread accurately is an essential function, since this is the reason that the position exists);
• there are a limited number of other employees available to perform the function, or among whom the function can be distributed (e.g., it may be an essential function for a file clerk to answer the telephone if there are only three employees in a very
busy office, and each employee has to perform many different tasks);
• a function is highly specialized, and the person in the position is hired for special expertise or ability to perform it (e.g., a company expanding its business in Cebu is hiring a new salesperson, so requires someone not only with sales experience, but also with the ability to communicate fluently in the Cebuano dialect
. To identify the essential functions of the job, first identify the purpose of the job, and the importance of actual job functions in achieving this purpose.

In evaluating the "importance" of job functions, consider, among other things, the frequency with which a function is performed, the amount of time spent on the
function, and the consequences if the function is not performed.

The consideration of various forms of evidence to determine whether or not a particular function is essential; these include, but are not limited to
• the employer's judgment;
• the amount of time spent on the job performing that function; and
• the availability of others in the department to fill in for the person who performs that function.

In defining the essential functions of a job, it is important to distinguish between methods and results. For example, is the essential function moving a fifty pound box
from one part of the lab to another, or is it carrying the box? While essential functions need to be performed, they often do not need to be performed in one particular manner (unless doing otherwise would create an undue hardship).


Knowledge, Skills and Abilities Section:

This section may break out into two or three subsections; it will depend on the needs of the job and your preferences. Every entry in this section must be supported by the Principal Duties and Responsibilities section. This section is critical in determining the areas of the position which may and may not be accommodated.This section outlines:

• Knowledge: The level of education, experience and training an individual must have at minimum to be considered qualified for the position. • Skills: Specific skills such as ability to create, manipulate and utilize spreadsheets, word processing programs, and so on (avoid using program names unless knowledge of that specific
program is essential).
• Abilities: Be careful with this requirement. Some examples: Does the position require LIFTING 50 pounds, or does it require the ability to move a box of paper from one location to another which could be done with a dolly, or one ream at a time? Does it require the ability to WALK across factory/office or MOVE across factory/office? For some positions, such as Security, the ability to walk and run will be essential. For most other positions, moving about could be accomplished by
other means. Include such abilities as visual acuity, ability to talk on the phone, and so on if appropriate. Remember, every entry in this section must be directly supported in the Principal Duties and Responsibilities section.

Writing the Job Description

Now that you’ve thought through the above, and have gathered data, it is time to write the job description. Have you carefully thought about what is REALLY needed? Is there tolerance for a new person's learning curve or do you need to hire someone with specific experience?

Some tips in writing Job

Descriptions:

A well written job description is written in a factual and impersonal style. It should be accurate, concise, and complete. Before writing a job description, you may want to consider these suggestions:
• List all the knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary to perform the job; divide them into requirements and preferences.
• Be precise. This is critical. • The requirements listed on the job description must support the essential functions, and serve as the primary criteria for selecting/rejecting candidates.
• Keep sentence structure as simple as possible; omit unnecessary words that do not contribute pertinent information.
• Begin each duty/task with an action verb.
• Avoid the narrative form. • Be consistent when using terms like "may" and "occasionally." These should be used to describe tasks that are performed once in a while, or tasks that only some employees perform.
• Refer to job titles rather than incumbents, i.e., "Reports to _______ Manager" instead of "Reports to Maria Santos."
• Focus on critical activities. Disregard minor occasional tasks, which are not unique to a specific job.
• Use logical sequence in describing duties and responsibilities, and be consistent.
• Don't lock yourself into strict requirements that may prevent you from considering qualified candidates. Consider substitutions (example: “Bachelor’s degree or a minimum of 6-8 years of relevant professional experience”).
• When hiring, use the job description as one of your guides in your search to find the most qualified candidate. Keep in mind that, you cannot refuse to hire a qualified candidate who meets the requirements and whose disability can
be reasonably accommodated.

Assignments July 3, 2008

1) Research and read on the following
a) Job Analysis
b) Writing of Job Descriptions
c) List down 15 Positions and Write Job Descriptions

JOB ANALYSIS

DEFINITION OF JOB ANALYSIS

Job analysis is a process of systematically collecting, analyzing and documenting the important facts about a job. It seeks to know:
WHAT A WORKER DOES
Duties
Tasks
HOW THE WORKER DOES IT
Methods
Tools
Techniques

WHY THE WORKER DOES IT
Products
Services

WORKER QUALIFICATIONS
Skills
Knowledge
Abilities
Physical Demands

USES OF JOB ANALYSIS

In Selection-Job analysis can provide specific information about the skills, knowledge and abilities required to perform successfully on the job. This information can be used to formulate job-related selection criteria and screening tools such as interview questions.

For Classification Purposes-Job analysis can provide information necessary for classifying positions and for making objective determinations about the relative value of a specific job in comparison with other jobs.

In Performance Appraisals - Job analysis can create a detailed, objective description of the position that allows both the supervisor and the employee to have a shared understanding of the job. It can also provide the information necessary to develop concrete performance standards.

For Planning Career Ladders - Job Analysis can provide the understanding of a job and it's relation to other jobs needed to initiate career ladder development.

For Training Purposes Job Analysis can assist in developing objectives, standards and curricula for individual and group training.


Duties
Tasks
Summary Statement
Degree of Supervision
Functional Verbs

DUTIES
1. A duty is a major subdivision of work performed by one individual.
2. It includes similar tasks that make up one area of responsibility.

TASKS

1.A task is one of the work operations that is a logical, essential step in the performance of a duty.

2.It defines the methods, procedures and techniques by which duties are carried out.
3.It should show:
• What is done (action).
• How it is done (procedures, materials, tools, or equipment).
• Why it is done (purpose).

4. Begin each task statement with an action verb in the first person present tense, e.g. write, calibrate, analyze.
5.Carefully clarify the following verbs which have a variety of meanings and connotations.
• analyze
• prepare
• handle
• act as liaison
• supervise
• edit
• manage

examples [1] [2]
6. Use an alternative task statement format when there is too much information in a single sentence.

7.Define uncommon abbreviations.
8.Do not include references to personal qualities or skills.
9.Provide supporting documentation to substantiate qualitative terms(e.g. complex, elaborate).
10.Avoid phrases such as "assist in", "responsible for" and "involved in" which obscure the action.

EXAMPLE

example duties example tasks

Sr. Clerk Duties

A. Typing
B. Correspondence
C. Public Contact
D. Conference coordination
E. Filing

Sr. Clerk Tasks

D. Conference Coordination
D1. Schedule speakers for bi-monthly departmental
seminars by calling individuals from established
listings, ascertaining availability, determining
event dates and composing correspondence.

Management Services Officer Duties

A. Budgetary analysis
B. Budget control
C. Contract and grant administration
D. Supervision of personnel resources
E. Material management
F. Space utilization

Management Services Officer Tasks

A. Budgetary Analysis
A1. Plan and prepare the annual budget by
integrating departmental goals and program plans;
research, laboratory and administrative
requirements; and faculty, student and other
statistical data.

Administrative Specialist Duties

A. Organizing work flow
B. Training
C. Staffing
D. Establishing procedures
E. EDB Update

Administrative Specialist Tasks

Staffing
Initiate personnel actions including selecting
new employees, conducting performance
evaluations, recommending salary increases,
providing counseling on disciplinary problems
and recommending corrective actions in order to
maintain effective staffing and production levels.

Senior Hospital Biller Duties

A. Follow up on delinquent accounts
B. Correction of billing errors
C. Writing off of unpaid accounts
D. Crediting of accounts
E. Documentation of files

Senior Hospital Biller Tasks

A. Follow up on delinquent accounts
A1. Follow up on all delinquent accounts within
specified patient alpha grouping by reviewing
patient’s file and any sponsor correspondence to
determine possible source of payment problem.
Make telephone/written inquiry to sponsor
requesting explanation.


EXAMPLE - Clarification of Verbs that have a variety of meanings

Manuscript Production
Good
Edit manuscripts for post graduate researchers by correcting spelling, faculty phrasing and imperfect punctuation.

Better
Edit manuscripts for post graduate researchers with authority to review critically from a subject matter standpoint, checking and verifying content, condensing overelaborated topics, making additions to topics inadequately covered and rearranging material when not effectively presented.

Reports
Good
Prepare statistical tables by seeking out sources of basic information, planning the schedule and means of collecting the information, designing tables and writing interpretive text.

Better
Prepare statistical tables by copying numbers from given places on a schedule, posting them to a given column and line on a tabulation sheet, adding to the columns, and computing the averages and percentages on a calculator.


EXAMPLE - Suggested Format for Tasks with Multiple Sub-Tasks


A. Staff Personnel Administrative

A1. Process annual staff merit increases

• confer with Principal Investigators to determine their
recommendations.
• answer questions regarding staff merit increase policy.
• monitor increase for budgetary restrictions and negotiate needed
exceptions with the Dean's Office.


EXAMPLE - Avoiding Vague Phrases

Poor
Assist Administrative Assistant in budget management by monitoring 30 supply and expense accounts.

Good
Monitor 30 intramural supply and expense accounts by posting expenditures and reconciling balances against the General Ledger.


SUMMARY STATEMENT
A summary statement provides a synopsis of the major purpose of a position and its role in the department.

EXAMPLE

Management Services Officer
Under direction of departmental chairperson, manage all business and support functions for the Department of Philosophy. Major duties include supervision of nonacademic staff, material management, space utilization, preparation and management of departmental budget and fiscal control of contracts and grants.

DEGREE OF SUPERVISION
This section of the job description describes the way in which work is assigned, when it is reviewed, how it is reviewed, and what guidelines, prototypes and protocols are available.

EXAMPLE

Management Services Officer
Assignments are given in terms of broad organizational goals and objectives. Goal attainment is reviewed with department chairperson on a quarterly basis through presentation of status reports and formal discussions. Department, campus and governmental guidelines relative to budgetary control, contract and grant administration, and personnel management are available for reference, however, interpretations and original problem-solving are required.

DEFINING SKILLS, KNOWLEDGE, AND ABILITIES (SKAs)

Guidelines for Writing SKAs
Sample Skills, Knowledge and Abilities

GUIDELINES FOR WRITING SKAs
1. A skill, knowledge or ability is something a worker knows or can do that enables the worker to successfully perform the duties of the job. Basic SKA categories include but are not limited to the following:

• Vocational (work content skills)
• Mathematical Skills
• Reasoning
• Language Skills (reading, writing and speaking)
• Human Relations
• Self Management

2. Each SKA statement should indicate:

EXAMPLE

• what ability - Skill in reading English words, simple sentences and numbers on documents so that they can be properly filed.

• at what level, in what amount
• in what context, for what purpose. (Optional)

3.Use examples from the job to help define the SKA concisely.
4.Avoid using subjective modifiers, e.g., high level, which have a different meaning for each individual

Assignments June 28, 2008

New Topic Area - HRD/Personnel Management Functions
Research on, read and understand the following topics

1)Assessing or Determining Organizational Manpower Requirements
2)Developing or crafting the Organizational Structure
3)Types of Organizational Structure (Heirarchical,Flat, Matrix,etc)
Submit 2-page report on the abovementioned topics

Advanced Reading: Job Descriptions

Assignments June 25, 2008

1) Research and Study on the Concepts of Values, Attitudes and Behavior as they relate to human behavior in organization.

2) Continue to study the following motivational theories:

Dual-Factor Theory - Frederick Herzberg
Frederick Herzberg and his associates began their research into motivation during the 1950's, examining the models and assumptions of Maslow and others. The result of this work was the formulation of what Herzberg termed the Motivation-Hygiene Theory (M-H). The basic hypotheses of this theory are that:

1. There are two types of motivators, one type which results in satisfaction with the job, and the other which merely prevents dissatisfaction. The two types are quite separate and distinct from one another. Herzberg called the factors which result in job satisfaction motivators and those that simply prevented dissatisfaction hygienes

2. The factors that lead to job satisfaction (the motivators) are:

achievement
recognition
work itself
responsibility
advancement
3. The factors which may prevent dissatisfaction (the hygienes) are:

company policy and administration

working conditions

supervision

interpersonal relations

money

status

security

Hygienes, if applied effectively, can at best prevent dissatisfaction: if applied poorly, they can result in negative feelings about the job.


Motivators are those things that allow for psychological growth and development on the job. They are closely related to the concept of self-actualisation, involving a challenge, an opportunity to extend oneself to the fullest, to taste the pleasure of accomplishment, and to be recognised as having done something worthwhile.

Hygienes are simply factors that describe the conditions of work rather than the work itself. Herberg's point is that if you want to motivate people, you have to be concerned with the job itself and not simply with the surroundings.

In a medical sense, growth, healing and development occur as natural internal processes. They are the result of proper diet, exercise, sleep etc. Hygienic procedures simply prevent disease from occurring. They do not promote growth per se. Herzberg says that we should focus our attention on the individuals in jobs, not on the things that we surround them with. He maintains that we tend to think that growth and development will occur if we provide good working conditions, status, security and administration, whereas in fact what stimulates growth (and motivation to grow and develop) are opportunities for achievement, recognition, responsibility and advancement.

Once again, this theory has a basic attraction. As Joe Kelly puts it, however:

"It is always as well to bear in mind that academics, who place considerable value on autonomy and inner direction, have an obsession about making work meaningful. The notion that it is possible to realise man's true nature through creative work which is its own reward is an exceedingly attractive proposition to the learned don which is rarely fully shared by his wife".

Herzberg goes further than Maslow, cutting the hierarchy off near the top and maintaining that motivation results only from some elements of esteem needs and self-actualisation.

The Need for Achievement - David McClelland
The one single motivating factor which has received the most attention in terms of research, is the need for achievement (n-ach). As a result, we know more about n-ach than any other motivational factor. Much of this knowledge is due the work of David McClelland of Harvard. To illustrate what he means by the need for achievement, McClelland cites the following example:

"Several years ago, a careful study was made of 450 workers who had been thrown out of work by a plant shutdown in Erie, Pennsylvania. Most of the unemployed workers stayed at home for a while and then checked with the employment service to see if their old jobs or similar ones were available. But a small minority among them behaved differently; the day they were laid off, they started job hunting. They checked both national and local employment offices; they studied the Help Wanted sections of the papers; they checked through their union, their church and various fraternal organisations; they looked into training courses to learn a new skill; they even left town to look for work, while the majority when questioned said they would not under any circumstances move away to obtain a job. Obviously the members of the active minority were differently motivated".

Individuals with a high n-ach have a number of distinctive characteristics which separate them from their peers. First of all, they like situations where they can take personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems. This allows them to gain personal satisfaction from their achievements. They do not like situations where success or failure results from chance. The important thing is that the outcome be the result of their own skill and effort.

A second characteristic of high n-ach people is that they like to set moderately high goals for themselves. These goals are neither so low that they can be achieved with little challenge, nor so high that they are impossible. High n-ach individuals prefer goals that require all-out effort and the exercise of all their abilities. Once again, the achievement of this type of objective results in greater personal satisfaction. This phenomenon can be observed in very young children. A child may be given a game of ring toss, told that he or she scores whenever a ring lands over the peg and then left alone to play the game. McClelland comments:

"Obviously children who stand next to the peg can score a ringer every time; but if they stand a long distance away, they will hardly ever get a ringer. The curious fact is that children with a high concern for achievement quite consistently stand at moderate distances from the peg where they are apt to get achievement satisfaction ... The ones with low n-Achievement, on the other hand, distribute their choices of where to stand quite randomly over the entire distance. In other words, people with high n-Achievement prefer a situation where there is a challenge, where there is some real risk of not succeeding, but not so great a risk that they might not overcome it by their own efforts".

A third distinctive characteristic of high achievers is that they want concrete feedback on their performance. Only certain types of jobs provide this kind of feedback, however, and so some kinds of jobs are unattractive to high achievers. For instance, teachers receive only imprecise, hazy feedback as to the effectiveness of their efforts while production managers have a daily output chart to look at with either joy or disappointment.

There are some additional minor characteristics possessed by high achievers. They tend to enjoy travel, are willing to give up a bird in the hand for two in the bush and prefer experts to friends as working partners. The image is clear; the high achiever is a personality type suited admirably to certain jobs and not others. It would be wrong to treat all individuals as high achievers and attempt to motivate them by offering them challenging jobs, rapid and objective feedback on performance and personal responsibility for success or failure.

The need for affiliation and the need for power
McClelland has also identified two other types of need, the need for affiliation (n-affil) and the need for power (n-pow). His testing procedure is concerned with the application of what is known as the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), a series of pictures which are presented to a subject, one at a time. The individual is asked to tell a story about each picture. The underlying assumption of the TAT procedure is that it will reveal the dominant thoughts and attitudes of subjects. For instance, an individual with high n-ach will formulate stories concerned with getting things done, challenging situations, feelings of satisfaction at having done a good job and so on. The individual with a high need for affiliation (n-affil) will reflect sensitivity to the feelings of others, a desire for friendly relationships and a reference to situations which involve human interactions. High n-power subjects will relate stories reflecting the process of influencing others, controlling and manipulating others.

The need for affiliation
The need for affiliation is similar to Maslow's need to belong. It can be a dominant motivating force affecting behaviour and may manifest itself in many different ways. The novelist John O'Hara was supposedly obsessed with the fact that, not having a college degree, he was excluded from membership of certain clubs and societies. At the other end of the spectrum, James Coyne, a former Governor of the Bank of Canada, was described as the most unclubbable man in the country, as he held an aversion to joining groups. In its most straightforward form, a need for affiliation manifests itself in a desire to be liked by others, to be part of a group, to enter into warm, personal relationships. High n-affil people value relationships over accomplishments, and friendship over power.

The need for power
In studying the motivational profiles of North American managers, McClelland noticed that many of those who reach the top of organisations and are rated as highly effective in their positions, demonstrate a concern for influencing people. This is, in McClelland's terms, a need for power. This need is not simply seen as the raw desire to control others or simply to exert authority. McClelland makes the point that:

"... this need must be disciplined and controlled so that it is directed toward the benefit of the institution as a whole and not toward the manager's personal aggrandisement. Moreover, the top manager's need for power ought to be greater than his or her need for being liked by people."

Power motivation refers not to autocratic, tyrannical behaviour but to a need to have some impact, to be influential and effective in achieving organisational goals.

Results
McClelland examined the motivational needs of a large group of managers whose units demonstrated varying degrees of morale. The most important factor, in predicting whether a manager's subordinates would exhibit high morale, turned out to be how their need for power related to their need for affiliation. Teams which exhibited higher morale were those in which the manager's need or power exceeded their desire to be liked. McClelland puts forward the following explanation:


"Sociologists have long argued that, for a bureaucracy to function effectively, those who manage it must be universalistic in applying rules. That is, if they make exceptions for the particular needs of individuals, the whole system will break down. The manager with a high need to be liked is precisely the one who wants to stay on good terms with everybody and therefore is the one most likely to make exceptions in terms of in terms of particular needs. ...Sociological theory and our data both argue ... that the person whose need for affiliation is high does not make a good manager."


Organisation man?
Power-motivated managers, like achievement orientated managers and the affiliators, demonstrate distinct characteristics:

They are highly organisation-minded. They feel responsible for building organisations to which they belong. They believe strongly in centralised authority.

They like to work. This is different from the high achiever who likes to minimise work by becoming more efficient. While the high achiever minimises effort and maximises output, the power-motivated manager enjoys work for its own sake.

They are willing to sacrifice some of their own self-interest for the good of the organisation.

They have a strong sense of justice, feeling that hard work and sacrifice should be rewarded.

The picture of McClelland's power-motivated manager is reminiscent of the organisation man caricatured by William Whyte. The message seems to be that if one is dedicated to the institution, committed to the work ethic and unflagging in energy and devotion, success will follow. However, the increasing popularity of switching jobs as a method of rapid advancement and the rapidity of change in organisations somewhat contradicts this type of thinking.

Lessons 1,2

Definition of Personnel Management

It is the part of management that is concerned with people and their relationships at work. Personnel management is the responsibility of all those who manage people. Personnel managers advise on, formulate, and implement personnel policies such as recruitment, conditions of employment, performance appraisal, training, industrial relations, and health and safety. There are various models of personnel management, of which human resource management is the most recent.

In any organization, there has to be someone concerned with the welfare and performance of persons who are a part of the operation. When an individual or a team of individuals takes on this task of seeing to programs and setting policies that impact everyone associated with the company, they are engaged in the process of personnel management, sometimes referred to as human resources management.

Personnel Management falls within the Administrative function of the enterprise.

Depending on the size of the organization, it may be possible for one person to handle the personnel management functions. As a company grows, it may be necessary to expand from a single personnel manager to a full-fledged personnel management, or Human Resources team. By understanding the needs of the company at each point in its growth, management can readily see to the addition to the Human Resources team over time.

Human Resource management is based in the efficient utilization of employees in achieving two main goals within a corporation or other type of organization. The first goal is to effectively make use of the talents and abilities of employees to achieve the operational objectives that are the ultimate aim of the organization. Along with realizing the goals of the organization, Human Resource management also seeks to ensure that the individual employee is satisfied with both the working environment and the compensation and benefits that he or she receives.

Importance of Personnel Management

The effectiveness of any organization in general is a direct function of the quality of the individuals who make up that organization. The knowledges, skills, abilities, and commitment of the members of the organization together constitute the most critical factor in the development and implementation of work plans and the delivery of products and services. Without the full commitment of its employees, an organization cannot accomplish its objectives. Consequently, the attraction, organization, development and motivation of employees -- the personnel function of management --is a central responsibility of all levels of management, from the chief executive to the first line supervisor.

The presence of employees when and where needed, in the numbers and the type needed, who are willing to commit their energy to the goals of the organization cannot be left to chance.

The Scope of Personnel Management

1) Organizational Staff Requirement Assessment
2) Job Analysis and Writing of Job Description
3) Recruitment
4) Testing and Screening
5) Selection
6) Employment Processing and Hiring
7) Pre-Work Training
8) Deployment
9) Training and development

Motivational Theories

The word motivation is coined from the Latin word "movere", which means to move. Motivation is defined as an internal drive that activates behavior and gives it direction. The term motivation theory is concerned with the processes that describe why and how human behavior is activated and directed. It is regarded as one of the most important areas of study in the field of organizational behavior. There are two different categories of motivation theories such as content theories, and process theories. Even though there are different motivation theories, none of them are universally accepted.

Also known as need theory, the content theory of motivation mainly focuses on the internal factors that energize and direct human behavior. Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Alderfer's ERG theory, Herzeberg's motivator-hygiene theory (Herzeberg's dual factors theory), and McClelland's learned needs or three-needs theory are some of the major content theories.

Of the different types of content theories, the most famous content theory is Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Maslow introduced five levels of basic needs through his theory. Basic needs are categorized as physiological needs, safety and security needs, needs of love, needs for self esteem and needs for self-actualization.

Hierarchy of Needs - Abraham Maslow
One model of motivation that has gained a lot of attention, but not complete acceptance, has been put forward by Abraham Maslow. Maslow's theory argues that individuals are motivated to satisfy a number of different kinds of needs, some of which are more powerful than others (or to use the psychological jargon, are more prepotent than others). The term prepotency refers to the idea that some needs are felt as being more pressing than others. Maslow argues that until these most pressing needs are satisfied, other needs have little effect on an individual's behaviour. In other words, we satisfy the most prepotent needs first and then progress to the less pressing ones. As one need becomes satisfied, and therefore less important to us, other needs loom up and become motivators of our behaviour.

Maslow represents this prepotency of needs as a hierarchy. The most prepotent needs are shown at the bottom of the ladder, with prepotency decreasing as one progresses upwards.

SELF-ACTUALISATION - reaching your maximum potential, doing you own best thing
ESTEEM - respect from others, self-respect, recognition
BELONGING - affiliation, acceptance, being part of something
SAFETY - physical safety, psychological security
PHYSIOLOGICAL - hunger, thirst, sex, rest
The first needs that anyone must satisfy are physiological. As Maslow says:

"Undoubtedly these physiological needs are the most prepotent of all needs. What this means specifically is that in the human being who is missing everything in life in an extreme fashion, it is most likely that the major motivation would be the physiological needs rather than any others. A person who is lacking food, safety, love and esteem would probably hunger for food more strongly than anything else".

Once the first level needs are largely satisfied, Maslow maintains, the next level of needs emerges. Individuals become concerned with the need for safety and security - protection from physical harm, disaster, illness and security of income, life-style and relationships.

Similarly, once these safety needs have become largely satisfied, individuals become concerned with belonging - a sense of membership in some group or groups, a need for affiliation and a feeling of acceptance by others.

When there is a feeling that the individual belongs somewhere, he or she is next motivated by a desire to be held in esteem. People need to be thought of as worthwhile by others, to be recognised as people with some value. They also have a strong need to see themselves as worthwhile people. Without this type of self-concept, one sees oneself as drifting, cut off, pointless. Much of this dissatisfaction with certain types of job centres around the fact that they are perceived, by the people performing them, as demeaning and therefore damaging to their self-concept.

Finally, Maslow says, when all these needs have been satisfied at least to some extent, people are motivated by a desire to self-actualise, to achieve whatever they define as their maximum potential, to do their thing to the best of their ability. Maslow describes self-actualisation as follows:

"A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if he is to be ultimately happy. What a man can do, he must do. This need we may call self-actualisation ... It refers to the desire for self-fulfilment, namely the tendency for one to become actualised in what one is potentially. This tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming.

The specific form these needs take will of course vary greatly from person to person. In one individual it may be expressed maternally, as the desire to be an ideal mother, in another athletically, in still another aesthetically, the painting of pictures, and in another inventively in the creation of new contrivances. It is not necessarily a creative urge although in people who have any capabilities for creation it will take this form."


Just like Maslow's hierarchy of needs, ERG theory explains existence, relatedness, and growth needs. Through dual factors theory, Herzeberg describes certain factors in the workplace which result in job satisfaction. McClelland's learned needs or three-needs theory uses a projective technique called the Thematic Aptitude Test (TAT) so as to evaluate people based on three needs: power, achievement, and affiliation. People with high need of power take action in a way that influences the other's behavior.

Another type of motivation theory is process theory. Process theories of motivation provide an opportunity to understand thought processes that influence behavior. The major process theories of motivation include Adams' equity theory, Vroom's expectancy theory, goal-setting theory, and reinforcement theory. Expectancy, instrumentality, and valence are the key concepts explained in the expectancy theory. Goal setting theory suggests that the individuals are motivated to reach set goals. It also requires that the set goals should be specific. Reinforcement theory is concerned with controlling behavior by manipulating its consequences.